Tritrophic interactions
The study of multitrophic interactions, has begun to reveal both the importance of indirect ecological interactions and how mechanistic details influence the strength of such interactions (Shurin et al. 2002; Borer et al. 2005; Mooney et al. 2010b). While trophic cascades were originally conceived as occurring through chains of static interactions (Hairston et al. 1960), contemporary research shows that trophic cascade strength depends on bidirectional factors modifying these component interactions. For example, the interaction between herbivores and plants can depend on changes in herbivore behavior induced by predators (e.g., Beckerman et al. 1997; Schmitz 1998; Preisser et al. 2005). At the same time, the interaction between carnivores and herbivores can depend on plant traits (e.g., Turlings et al. 1990; Kessler and Baldwin 2001; Lill et al. 2002; Singer et al. 2004; Mooney et al. 2010a). The study of plant effects on herbivore-carnivore interactions has developed considerably since Price et al. (1980) highlighted its broad importance to ecology and evolutionary biology. Plants vary extensively in chemical and physical traits that affect herbivore-carnivore interactions, and, as a consequence, changes in plant community structure and expression of plant traits can alter top-down control of herbivore populations (e.g., Mooney et al. 2010a), bottom-up effects on herbivore and carnivore populations (e.g., Both et al. 2006), and selection on traits of interacting species (e.g., Lankau and Strauss 2008; Lau 2008). Nevertheless, the mechanistic study of these dynamics comes largely from ecologically simplified agricultural systems (Hare 1992, 2002). Furthermore, studies from both agricultural and natural systems alike have focused on individual plant species and a small number of herbivores and predators, and extrapolation to the web of species interactions at a larger community scale is uncertain. Additional studies that widen the scope of study systems to quantitatively capture the properties of larger communities offer an important avenue for testing and developing theory (Wootton 2002).
We aim to focus on few Ficus species in tropical forests - in primary and secondary forest - their herbivores and predators of herbivores. We pan to do exclosure/inclosure experiments to reveal how plants respond to the absence of the enemies of their predators. How the communities of insect change in relativelly safe environment.
Beckerman, A. P., M. Uriarte, and O. J. Schmitz. 1997. Experimental evidence for a behavior-mediated trophic cascade in a terrestrial food chain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 94:10735–10738.
Both, C., S. Bouwhuis, C. M. Lessells, and M. E. Visser. 2006. Climate change and population declines in a long-distance migratory bird. Nature 441:81–83.
Borer, E. T., E. W. Seabloom, J. B. Shurin, K. E. Anderson, C. A. Blanchette, B. Broitman, S. D. Cooper, and B. S. Halpern. 2005. What determines the strength of a trophic cascade? Ecology 86: 528–537.
Mooney, K. A., R. Halitschke, A. Kessler, and A. A. Agrawal. 2010a. Evolutionary trade-offs in plants mediate the strength of trophic cascades. Science 327:1642–1644.
Mooney, K. A., D. S. Gruner, N. A. Barber, S. A. Van Bael, S. M. Philpott, and R. Greenberg. 2010b. Interactions among predators and the cascading effects of vertebrate insectivores on arthropod communities and plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 107:7335–7340.
Lau, J. A. 2008. Beyond the ecological: biological invasions alter natural selection on a native plant species. Ecology 89:1023–1031.
Lill, J. T., R. J. Marquis, and R. E. Ricklefs. 2002. Host plants influence parasitism of forest caterpillars. Nature 417:170–173.
Kessler, A., and I. T. Baldwin. 2001. Defensive function of herbivoreinduced plant volatile emissions in nature. Science 291:2141–2144.
Hairston, N., F. Smith, and L. Slobodkin. 1960. Community structure, population control and competition. American Naturalist 94:421–425.
Shurin, J. B., E. T. Borer, E. W. Seabloom, K. Anderson, C. A. Blanchette, B. Broitman, S. D. Cooper, and B. S. Halpern. 2002. A cross-ecosystem comparison of the strength of trophic cascades. Ecology Letters 5:785–791.
Schmitz, O. J. 1998. Direct and indirect effects of predation and predation risk in old-field interaction webs. American Naturalist 151:327–342.
Singer, M. S., Y. Carrie`re, C. Theuring, and T. Hartmann. 2004. Disentangling food quality from resistance against parasitoids: diet choice by a generalist caterpillar. American Naturalist 164:423–429.
Turlings, T. C. J., J. H. Tumlinson, andW. J. Lewis. 1990. Exploitation of herbivore-induced plant odors by host-seeking parasitic wasps. Science 250:1251–1253.
Hare, J. D. 1992. Effects of plant variation on herbivore-natural enemy interactions. Pages 278–300 in R. S. Fritz and E. L. Simms, eds. Plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens: ecology, evolution, and genetics. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Hare, J. D. 2002. Plant genetic variation in tritrophic interactions. Pages 8–43 in T. Tscharntke and B. A. Hawkins, eds. Multitrophic level interactions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Wooton, J. T. 2002. Indirect effects in complex ecosystems: recent progress and future challenges. Journal of Sea Research 48:157–172.
Lankau, R. A., and S. Y. Strauss. 2008. Community complexity drives patterns of natural selection on a chemical defense of Brassica nigra. American Naturalist 171:150–161.
Price, P.W., C. E. Bouton, P. Gross, B. A. McPheron, J. N. Thompson, and A. E. Weis. 1980. Interactions among three trophic levels: influence of plants on interactions between insect herbivores and natural enemies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11: 41–65.
We aim to focus on few Ficus species in tropical forests - in primary and secondary forest - their herbivores and predators of herbivores. We pan to do exclosure/inclosure experiments to reveal how plants respond to the absence of the enemies of their predators. How the communities of insect change in relativelly safe environment.
Beckerman, A. P., M. Uriarte, and O. J. Schmitz. 1997. Experimental evidence for a behavior-mediated trophic cascade in a terrestrial food chain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 94:10735–10738.
Both, C., S. Bouwhuis, C. M. Lessells, and M. E. Visser. 2006. Climate change and population declines in a long-distance migratory bird. Nature 441:81–83.
Borer, E. T., E. W. Seabloom, J. B. Shurin, K. E. Anderson, C. A. Blanchette, B. Broitman, S. D. Cooper, and B. S. Halpern. 2005. What determines the strength of a trophic cascade? Ecology 86: 528–537.
Mooney, K. A., R. Halitschke, A. Kessler, and A. A. Agrawal. 2010a. Evolutionary trade-offs in plants mediate the strength of trophic cascades. Science 327:1642–1644.
Mooney, K. A., D. S. Gruner, N. A. Barber, S. A. Van Bael, S. M. Philpott, and R. Greenberg. 2010b. Interactions among predators and the cascading effects of vertebrate insectivores on arthropod communities and plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 107:7335–7340.
Lau, J. A. 2008. Beyond the ecological: biological invasions alter natural selection on a native plant species. Ecology 89:1023–1031.
Lill, J. T., R. J. Marquis, and R. E. Ricklefs. 2002. Host plants influence parasitism of forest caterpillars. Nature 417:170–173.
Kessler, A., and I. T. Baldwin. 2001. Defensive function of herbivoreinduced plant volatile emissions in nature. Science 291:2141–2144.
Hairston, N., F. Smith, and L. Slobodkin. 1960. Community structure, population control and competition. American Naturalist 94:421–425.
Shurin, J. B., E. T. Borer, E. W. Seabloom, K. Anderson, C. A. Blanchette, B. Broitman, S. D. Cooper, and B. S. Halpern. 2002. A cross-ecosystem comparison of the strength of trophic cascades. Ecology Letters 5:785–791.
Schmitz, O. J. 1998. Direct and indirect effects of predation and predation risk in old-field interaction webs. American Naturalist 151:327–342.
Singer, M. S., Y. Carrie`re, C. Theuring, and T. Hartmann. 2004. Disentangling food quality from resistance against parasitoids: diet choice by a generalist caterpillar. American Naturalist 164:423–429.
Turlings, T. C. J., J. H. Tumlinson, andW. J. Lewis. 1990. Exploitation of herbivore-induced plant odors by host-seeking parasitic wasps. Science 250:1251–1253.
Hare, J. D. 1992. Effects of plant variation on herbivore-natural enemy interactions. Pages 278–300 in R. S. Fritz and E. L. Simms, eds. Plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens: ecology, evolution, and genetics. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Hare, J. D. 2002. Plant genetic variation in tritrophic interactions. Pages 8–43 in T. Tscharntke and B. A. Hawkins, eds. Multitrophic level interactions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Wooton, J. T. 2002. Indirect effects in complex ecosystems: recent progress and future challenges. Journal of Sea Research 48:157–172.
Lankau, R. A., and S. Y. Strauss. 2008. Community complexity drives patterns of natural selection on a chemical defense of Brassica nigra. American Naturalist 171:150–161.
Price, P.W., C. E. Bouton, P. Gross, B. A. McPheron, J. N. Thompson, and A. E. Weis. 1980. Interactions among three trophic levels: influence of plants on interactions between insect herbivores and natural enemies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11: 41–65.